TOEFL reading questions

Take a look at a range of TOEFL reading questions. In the exam, there will be 2 sections that will need 35 minutes to complete. See how well you can do with these examples.

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TOEFL Reading Questions

Take a look at some of these reading questions. Each quiz is designed like a section of the TOEFL reading section.

TOEFL Reading 1

1 / 10

1 The city of Teotihuacán, which lay about 50 kilometers northeast of modern-day Mexico City,
began its growth by 200–100 B.C. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably
had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. It
had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops,
an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of
streets and buildings. Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the
expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps
religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico).

2 How did this tremendous development take place, and why did it happen in the Teotihuacán
Valley? Among the main factors are Teotihuacán’s geographic location on a natural trade
route to the south and east of the Valley of Mexico, the obsidian1
resources in the Teotihuacán Valley itself, and the valley’s potential for extensive irrigation. The exact role of
other factors is much more difficult to pinpoint—for instance, Teotihuacán’s religious
significance as a shrine, the historical situation in and around the Valley of Mexico toward
the end of the first millennium B.C., the ingenuity and foresightedness of Teotihuacán’s elite,
and, finally, the impact of natural disasters, such as the volcanic eruptions of the late first
millennium B.C.

3 This last factor is at least circumstantially implicated in Teotihuacán’s rise. Prior to 200 B.C.,
a number of relatively small centers coexisted in and near the Valley of Mexico. Around this
time, the largest of these centers, Cuicuilco, was seriously affected by a volcanic eruption,
with much of its agricultural land covered by lava. With Cuicuilco eliminated as a potential
rival, any one of a number of relatively modest towns might have emerged as a leading
economic and political power in Central Mexico. The archaeological evidence clearly
indicates, though, that Teotihuacán was the center that did arise as the predominant force in
the area by the first century A.D.

4 It seems likely that Teotihuacán’s natural resources—along with the city elite’s ability to
recognize their potential—gave the city a competitive edge over its neighbors. The valley, like
many other places in Mexican and Guatemalan highlands, was rich in obsidian. The hard
volcanic stone was a resource that had been in great demand for many years, at least since the
rise of the Olmecs (a people who flourished between 1200 and 400 B.C.), and it apparently
had a secure market. Moreover, recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmec sites has
shown that some of the obsidian obtained by the Olmecs originated near Teotihuacán.
Teotihuacán obsidian must have been recognized as a valuable commodity for many centuries
before the great city arose.

5 Long-distance trade in obsidian probably gave the elite residents of Teotihuacán access to a
wide variety of exotic goods, as well as a relatively prosperous life. Such success may have
attracted immigrants to Teotihuacán. In addition, Teotihuacán’s elite may have consciously
attempted to attract new inhabitants. It is also probable that as early as 200 B.C. Teotihuacán
may have achieved some religious significance and its shrine (or shrines) may have served as
an additional population magnet. Finally, the growing population was probably fed by
increasing the number and size of irrigated fields.

6 The picture of Teotihuacán that emerges is a classic picture of positive feedback among
obsidian mining and working, trade, population growth, irrigation, and religious tourism. The
thriving obsidian operation, for example, would necessitate more miners, additional
manufacturers of obsidian tools, and additional traders to carry the goods to new markets. All
this led to increased wealth, which in turn would attract more immigrants to Teotihuacán. The
growing power of the elite, who controlled the economy, would give them the means to
physically coerce people to move to Teotihuacán and serve as additions to the labor force.
More irrigation works would have to be built to feed the growing population, and this resulted
in more power and wealth for the elite.

In paragraph 1, each of the following is mentioned as a feature of the city of
Teotihuacán between A.D. 150 and 700 EXCEPT

regularly arranged streets

several administrative centers spread across the city

apartment complexes

many manufacturing workshops

2 / 10

The word “ingenuity” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

faith

sincerity

cleverness

ambition

3 / 10

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a main factor in the
development of Teotihuacán?

The potential for extensive irrigation of Teotihuacán Valley lands

Teotihuacán’s location on a natural trade route

The presence of obsidian in the Teotihuacán Valley

A long period of volcanic inactivity in the Teotihuacán Valley

4 / 10

What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about Cuicuilco prior to 200 B.C.?

It was a fairly small city until that date

It was located outside the Valley of Mexico

It emerged rapidly as an economical and political center.

Its economy relied heavily on agriculture.

5 / 10

Which of the following allowed Teotihuacán to have “a competitive edge over its
neighbors”?

Scarce natural resources in nearby areas such as those located in what are now the Guatemalan and Mexican highlands

The presence of a highly stable elite class

Knowledge derived directly from the Olmecs about the art of toolmaking

A well-exploited and readily available commodity

6 / 10

According to paragraph 4, what has recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmec
sites shown?

Obsidian’s value was understood only when Teotihuacán became an important city.

The residents of Teotihuacán were sophisticated toolmakers.

Some of the obsidian used by the Olmecs came from the area around Teotihuacán.

The residents of Teotihuacán traded obsidian with the Olmecs as early as 400 B.C

7 / 10

Select the TWO answer choices that are mentioned in paragraph 5 as being features of
Teotihuacán that may have attracted immigrants to the city. To receive credit, you must
select TWO answers.

The prosperity of the elite

Plenty of available housing

The presence of one or more religious shrines

Opportunities for well-paid agricultural employment

8 / 10

In paragraph 6, the author discusses “The thriving obsidian operation” in order to

explain why manufacturing was the main industry of Teotihuacán

illustrate how several factors influenced each other to make Teotihuacán a powerful and wealthy city

explain how a successful industry can be a source of wealth and a source of conflict at the same time

give an example of an industry that took very little time to develop in Teotihuacán

9 / 10

In paragraph 1 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated
below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence
could be added.
In fact, artifacts and pottery from Teotihuacán have been discovered in sites as far
away as the Mayan lowlands, the Guatemalan highlands, northern Mexico, and the
Gulf Coast of Mexico.
Where would the sentence best fit?
The city of Teotihuacán, which lay about 50 kilometers northeast of modern-day Mexico
City, began its growth by 200–100 B.C. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it
probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square
kilometers. (A) It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of
industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a
regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. (B) Clearly, much planning and central control
were involved in the expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. (C) Moreover, the city
had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern
Central America and Mexico). (D)

10 / 10

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the
most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in
the passage.

As a result of its large number of religious shrines, by the first century A.D., Teotihuacán became the most influential religious center in all of Mesoamerica.

In many important areas, from the obsidian industry to religious tourism, Teotihuacán’s success and prosperity typified the classic positive feedback cycle.

Teotihuacán may have developed its own specific local religion as a result of the cultural advances made possible by the city’s great prosperity.

The number and sophistication of the architectural, administrative, commercial, and religious features of Teotihuacán indicate the existence of centralized planning and control.

Several factors may account for Teotihuacán’s extraordinary development, including its location, rich natural resources, irrigation potential, intelligent elite, and the misfortune of rival communities.

Although many immigrants settled in Teotihuacán between A.D. 150 and 700, the increasing threat of coerced labor discouraged further settlement and limited Teotihuacán’s population growth.

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TOEFL Reading 2

1 / 10

Extinction of the Dinosaurs

Paleozoic Era 334 to 248 million years ago

Mesozoic Era 245 to 65 million years ago
─Triassic Period
─Jurassic Period
─Cretaceous Period
Cenozoic Era 65 million years ago to the present

1 Paleontologists have argued for a long time that the demise of the dinosaurs was caused by
climatic alterations associated with slow changes in the positions of continents and seas
resulting from plate tectonics. Off and on throughout the Cretaceous (the last period of the
Mesozoic era, during which dinosaurs flourished), large shallow seas covered extensive areas
of the continents. Data from diverse sources, including geochemical evidence preserved in
seafloor sediments, indicate that the Late Cretaceous climate was milder than today’s. The
days were not too hot, nor the nights too cold. The summers were not too warm, nor the
winters too frigid. The shallow seas on the continents probably buffered the temperature of the
nearby air, keeping it relatively constant.

2 At the end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from
the continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about
100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically
more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters. Perhaps dinosaurs
could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct.

3 If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles
survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the
climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be
affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists
believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had
retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why
did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not
with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related
to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

4 Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising
observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear
abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the
Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the
Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock,
there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the
extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and
they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the
amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained.

5 Ir has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history.
Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core
as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in
which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic
meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many
of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long
it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the boundary clay. These
calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required.
However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not
have taken one million years. So the unusually high concentration of Ir seems to require a
special explanation.

6 In view of these facts, scientists hypothesized that a single large asteroid, about 10 to 15
kilometers across, collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay.
Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several
months, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants; decreased surface temperatures on continents to
below freezing; caused extreme episodes of acid rain; and significantly raised long-term
global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of the food chain and
climate would have eradicated the dinosaurs and other organisms in less than fifty years.

According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the Late Cretaceous
climate?

The climate did not change dramatically from season to season.

Summers were very warm and winters were very cold.

The climate was very similar to today’s climate.

Shallow seas on the continents caused frequent temperature changes.

2 / 10

Why does the author mention the survival of “snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles”
in paragraph 3 ?

To question the adequacy of the hypothesis that climatic change related to sea levels caused the extinction of the dinosaurs

To support a hypothesis that these animals were not as sensitive to climate changes in the Cretaceous period as they are today

To present examples of animals that could maintain a livable body temperature more easily than dinosaurs

To argue that dinosaurs may have become extinct because they were not cold-blooded animals

3 / 10

According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of changes in climate before
the Cretaceous period and the effect of these changes on dinosaurs?

Frequent changes in climate before the Cretaceous period made dinosaurs better able to maintain a livable body temperature.

A Climate changes associated with the movement of seaways before the Cretaceous period did not cause dinosaurs to become extinct.

Changes in climate before the Cretaceous period caused severe fluctuation in sea level, resulting in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Before the Cretaceous period there were few changes in climate, and dinosaurs flourished.

4 / 10

The word “fluctuations” in the passage is closest in meaning to

extremes

variations

periods

retreats

5 / 10

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in paragraph 4 ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or
leave out essential information.

Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them.

The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era.

Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous.

Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era.

6 / 10

In paragraph 4, all of the following questions are answered EXCEPT:

Why were scientists interested in determining how long it took to deposit the layer of clay at the end of the Cretaceous?

Why is there a layer of clay between the rocks of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic?

What was the effect of the surprising observation scientists made?

Why did scientists want more information about the dinosaur extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous?

7 / 10

Paragraph 5 implies that a special explanation of the Ir in the boundary clay is needed
because

the amount of Ir in the boundary clay is too great to have come from microscopic meteorites during the time the boundary clay was deposited

the Ir in microscopic meteorites reaching Earth during the Cretaceous period would have been incorporated into Earth’s core

the Ir in the boundary clay was deposited much more than a million years ago

the concentration of Ir in the boundary clay is higher than in microscopic meteorites

8 / 10

The word “disruption” in the passage is closest in meaning to

disturbance

modification

exhaustion

disappearance

9 / 10

In paragraph 5 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated
below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence
could be added.
Consequently, the idea that the Ir in the boundary clay came from microscopic
meteorites cannot be accepted.
Where would the sentence best fit?
Ir has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history.
Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core
as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites,
in which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today,
microscopic meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By
measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists
can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the
boundary clay. (A) These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would
have been required. (B) However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the
boundary clay could not have taken one million years. (C) So the unusually high
concentration of Ir seems to require a special explanation. (D)

10 / 10

The abruptness of extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous and the high concentration of Ir found in clay deposited at that time have fuelled the development of a new hypothesis.

The retreat of the seaways at the end of the Cretaceous has not been fully explained.

Extreme changes in daily and seasonal climates preceded the retreat of the seas back into the major ocean basins.

Some scientists hypothesize that the extinction of the dinosaurs resulted from the effects of an asteroid collision with Earth.

A simple climate change does not explain some important data related to the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous.

Boundary clay layers like the one between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic are used by scientists to determine the rate at which an extinct species declined.

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TOEFL Reading 3

1 / 10

The Geologic History of the Mediterranean

1 In 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B. F. Ryan were collecting research data
while aboard the oceanographic research vessel Glomar Challenger. An objective of this
particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions
about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna
(animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years
ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species
survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the migrants returned,
bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur?

2 Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the
domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. These structures had been
detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the
course of drilling. Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf
Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of
the Mediterranean?

3 With questions such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger
proceeded to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they
recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been
soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum1 and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a
single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby
continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as
drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess
peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats.
Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open
ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin,
the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt
were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt.

4 The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20
million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow
straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to
evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of
scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty
conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so
dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of
the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt).
Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt
domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters
deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments
and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic,
opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore
into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the
first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms
returned. Soon layers of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.

5 The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant evidence
that the Mediterranean was once a desert.

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as a change that occurred in
the fauna of the Mediterranean?

New species of fauna populated the Mediterranean when the old migrants returned.

Some invertebrates migrated to the Atlantic Ocean.

Most invertebrate species disappeared during a wave of extinctions.

A few hardy species wiped out many of the Mediterranean’s invertebrates.

2 / 10

As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.

The Strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.

The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.

The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.

3 / 10

The word “scores” in the passage is closest in meaning to

different types

members

large numbers

populations

4 / 10

What does the author imply by saying “Not a single pebble was found that might have
indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent”?

icated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent”? A The most obvious explanation for the origin of the pebbles was not supported by the evidence.

The geologists did not find as many pebbles as they expected

The different pebbles could not have come from only one source.

The geologists were looking for a particular kind of pebble.

5 / 10

Select the TWO answer choices from paragraph 3 that identify materials discovered in
the deepest part of the Mediterranean basin. To receive credit, you must select TWO
answers.

Crystalline salt

Volcanic rock fragments

Thin silt layers

Soft, deep-sea mud

6 / 10

What is the main purpose of paragraph 3 ?

To describe the physical evidence collected by Hsu and Ryan

To describe the most difficult problems faced by the Glomar Challenger expedition

To evaluate techniques used by Hsu and Ryan to explore the sea floor

To explain why some of the questions posed earlier in the passage could not be answered by the findings of the Glomar Challenger

7 / 10

In paragraph 2 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated
below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence
could be added.
Thus, scientists had information about the shape of the domes but not about their
chemical composition and origin.
Where would the sentence best fit?
(A) Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of
the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. B) These structures
had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been
penetrated in the course of drilling. (C) Were they salt domes such as are common along the
United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt
beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? (D)

8 / 10

According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of
the Mediterranean’s waters?

Changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean

The movements of Earth’s crust

Changes in Earth’s temperature

The accumulation of sediment layers

9 / 10

According to paragraph 4, what caused most invertebrate species in the Mediterranean
to become extinct?

Their inability to tolerate the increasing salt content of the Mediterranean

The evaporation of chemicals necessary for their survival

Crustal movements that connected the Mediterranean to the saltier Atlantic

The migration of new species through the narrow straits

10 / 10

Samples recovered from the expedition revealed important differences in chemical composition and fossil distribution among the sediment layers.

Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor.

The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features.

Evidence collected by the Glomar Challenger supports geologists’ beliefs that the Mediterranean had evaporated and become a desert, before it refilled with water.

Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species.

Mediterranean salt domes formed after crustal movements opened the straits between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean refilled with water.

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TOEFL reading 4

1 / 14

Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution

[1] Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution is known as one of the most important and
controversial scientific theories ever published. Darwin was an English scientist in the
19th century best known for his book “On the Origin of Species.” In his book,
Darwin postulated different species shared characteristics of common ancestors, that
they branched off from common ancestors as they evolved, and that new traits and
characteristics were a result of natural selection. The theory is based on the
assumptions that life developed from non-life and progressed and evolved in an
indirect manner. Therefore, the Theory of Evolution, while controversial, has shaped
and influenced the modern scientific world's thinking on the development of life itself.
Darwin was born February 12, 1809 in England. Although initially entering into
medicine, Darwin chose to pursue his interest in natural science and embarked on a
five-year journey aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, a British sloop belonging to the Royal
Navy. Because of his experience aboard the Beagle, he laid the foundation for his
Theory of Evolution while also establishing himself within the scientific community.
Specifically, Darwin's keen observation of the fossils and wildlife he saw during his time
on the Beagle served as the basis for the cornerstone of his theory: natural selection.

[2] Natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution. One of
the core tenets of Darwin's theory is that more offspring are always produced for a
species than can possibly survive. Yet, no two offspring are perfectly alike. As a result,
through random mutation and genetic drift, over time offspring develop new traits and
characteristics. Over time beneficial traits and characteristics that promote survival will
be kept in the gene pool while those that harm survival will be selected against.
Therefore, this natural selection ensures that a species gradually improves itself over an
extended duration of time. On the other hand, as a species continues to 'improve' itself,
it branches out to create entirely new species that are no longer capable of reproducing
together.

[3] Through natural selection, organisms could branch off of each other and evolve
to the point where they no longer belong to the same species. Consequently, simple
organisms evolve into more complex and different organisms as species break away
from one another. Natural selection parallels selective breeding employed by humans
on domesticated animals for centuries. Namely, horse breeders will ensure that horses
with particular characteristics, such as speed and endurance, are allowed to produce
offspring while horses that do not share those above-average traits will not. Therefore,
over several generations, the new offspring will already be pre-disposed towards being
excellent racing horses.

[4] Darwin's theory is that 'selective breeding' occurs in nature as 'natural selection'
is the engine behind evolution. Thus, the theory provides an excellent basis for
understanding how organisms change over time. Nevertheless, it is just a theory and
elusively difficult to prove. One of the major holes in Darwin's theory revolves around
“irreducibly complex systems.” An irreducibly complex system is known as a system
where many different parts must all operate together. As a result, in the absence of one,
the system as a whole collapses. Consequently, as modern technology improves,
science can identify these “irreducibly complex systems” even at microscopic levels.
These complex systems, if so inter-reliant, would be resistant to Darwin's supposition of
how evolution occurs. As Darwin himself admitted, “To suppose that the eye with all its
inimitable contrivance for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting
different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration,
could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I free confess, absurd in the
highest degree".

[5] In conclusion, “On the Origin of Species” is known as one of the
most consequential books ever published. Darwin's Theory of Evolution remains, to
this day, a lightning rod for controversy. The theory can be observed repeatedly, but
never proven, and there are a plethora of instances that cast doubt on the processes of
natural selection and evolution. Darwin's conclusions were a result of keen observation
and training as a naturalist. Despite the controversy that swirls around his theory,
Darwin remains one of the most influential scientists and naturalists ever born due to his
Theory of Evolution.

According to paragraph 1, where did Charles Darwin begin to observe and formulate
the basis for his Theory of Evolution?

Observing Horse Breeders

Medical School

Aboard the H.M.S. Beagle

England

2 / 14

The word 'postulated' in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:

oppose

hypothesize

disagree

prove

3 / 14

Which sentence is most similar to the following sentence from paragraph 1?
The theory is based on the assumptions that life developed from non-life and
progressed and evolved in an indirect manner.

The Theory of Evolution is founded on evidence that non-organic compounds are the basis of life, developed in an unguided way.

According to Darwin, if we assume that life at its origin was created from nonorganic compounds and developed in an unguided manner, his theory holds true.

Due to the controversy, it is hard to make assumptions about the Theory of Evolution.

Based on certain assumptions, we can prove that evolution occurs in all living and non-living entities.

4 / 14

According to paragraph 2, what are the causes for species developing new traits and
characteristics?

mutation and genetic drift

survival and selection

tenets and theory

medicine and longevity

5 / 14

The word 'those' in paragraph 2 refers to:

gene pool

survival

traits and characteristics

natural selection

6 / 14

According to paragraph 3, what is natural selection most comparable to as a
process?

selective breeding

irreducibly complex systems

the human eye

branching trees

7 / 14

What is the purpose of paragraph 3 in the passage?

To create doubt as to the validity of the theory

To show the simple-to-complex nature of natural selection in context

To segue into the main point presented in paragraph 4

To contrast with the ideas presented in paragraph 2

8 / 14

The word 'contrivance' in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to:

retention

organization

systems

absurdity

9 / 14

The word 'consequential' in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to:

measurable

important

fragmented

dismissible

10 / 14

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as a viewpoint to state that natural
selection is difficult to prove EXCEPT

The presence of irreducibly complex system contradicts how evolution occurs

Selective breeding is the major hole in the theory of natural selection

The belief that the complexity of the human eye could have been formed by natural selection seems highly unlikely

Modern technology has been used to prove that irreducibly complex systems exists

11 / 14

Examine the four █ in the selection below and indicate at which block the following
sentence could be inserted into the passage:

The five-year voyage proved to be a major turning point in his life.

█ [A] Darwin was born February 12, 1809 in England. █ [B] Although initially entering
into medicine, Darwin chose to pursue his interest in natural science and embarked on
a five-year journey aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, a British sloop belonging to the Royal
Navy █ [C] Because of his experience aboard the Beagle, he laid the foundation for his
Theory of Evolution while also establishing himself within the scientific community. █ [D]

12 / 14

In paragraph 4, what was the author's purpose of including a quote that the belief
that the complexity of the human eye could have been formed by natural selection
seems highly unlikely?

To support that the natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution

To provide evidence that irreducibly complex systems exists

To prove that the natural selection contradicts the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution

To support the claim that natural selection is just a theory and difficult to prove

13 / 14

The word 'plethora' in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to:

sufficient

prominent

essential

large

14 / 14

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is
provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that
express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the
summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are
minor ideas in the passage.

Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution was a revolutionary idea that described
how natural selection influences the evolution of species.

Both Darwin and “On the Origin of Species” are among the most influential things to happen to naturalist science.

Natural selection explains how species change gradually over time.

The Theory of Evolution describes how species 'branch out' from a common ancestor

Creationists strongly object to the premise of the Theory of Evolution

The Theory of Evolution was proven by Darwin's book “On the Origin of Species.'

Charles Darwin originally enrolled to study medicine.

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TOEFL Reading 5

1 / 10

The Rise of Cahokia

P1: The ancient city of Cahokia was located at a site very close to modern St. Louis in the United States. At its apex from A.D. 1100 to 1200, Cahokia covered about 16 square kilometers and probably had a population that peaked at around 15,000. Excavations of the city have revealed that it contained a large number of public plazas that were separated by at least 120 man made earthen mounds, the largest of which was topped by a major temple. Remains have also been found of an elaborate copper workshop that produced sophisticated metal goods likely traded with both nearby and distant settlements. Moreover, the city is noted for its significant economic and spiritual contacts with other communities in the Mississippi area. Although the inhabitants left no written records beyond symbols on pottery, shells, wood and stone, the remains of this elaborately planned community suggest that it was home to a complex society that had great influence over a large geographic area.

P2: What accounts for the tremendous population growth of the city and its influence on the surrounding region? Among the main factors currently cited are the city’s location on a natural trade route near the confluence of three major rivers (the Mississippi, Missouri and Illinois), its attractiveness as a religious pilgrimage site for inhabitants of other settlements, and the economic value of chert* that could be collected in nearby streams. The influence of other possible factors is much less clear – for example the ingenuity and foresightedness of the city’s leadership, the construction of advanced defensive structures, and the emergence of new and more productive agricultural techniques first practiced in Mesoamerica.

P3: The importance of the last factor is a matter of some debate. Cahokia’s peak in 1100 coincided with the emergence in the region of new methods of agricultural production. These included the “three sisters” method of farming first discovered centuries earlier in Mesoamerica. However, even though the city was ringed by farming communities, due to rapid population growth they were unable to feed the whole population. A related problem was the challenge of waste disposal in such a dense community, and people in Cahokia likely became sick from polluted waterways. Because it was such an unhealthy place to live, modern historians believe that the town had to rely on social and political attractions to bring in a steady supply of new immigrants. Without their arrival, this problem would have caused the city to be abandoned much earlier than it eventually was.

P4: It is likely that one of Cahokia’s massive construction projects, encouraged by the spiritual elite, bolstered the population of the city. This was the largest of the city’s mounds – now known as Monks Mound – which covered 14 acres, rose 30 meters and was topped by a massive wooden temple another 15 meters high that was presided over by the city’s paramount chief. To complete this unique structure, thousands of workers moved vast amounts of earth in handheld woven baskets over the course of several decades. This impressive structure would have been seen throughout the city and made it an appealing pilgrimage destination for people all over the Mississippi area, attracting many visitors, some of whom settled permanently in the city.

P5: The city’s growth as an important population center was also a result of its ability to establish and maintain economic links with communities as far away as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south. This was achieved through the trade of such exotic items as copper, chert, and seashells. Chert, most notably, was used in the production of hoes, a high demand tool for farmers around Cahokia and other Mississippian centers. Recent research on chert tools discovered at the Silvernail settlement site near modern day Minnesota found that the raw materials used to construct some of them originated near Cahokia.

P6: The population of Cahokia began to decline during the 13th century. Scholars have not determined why this happened, but have proposed theories involving environmental factors such as overhunting, deforestation, and flooding, as explanations for the abandonment of the site. Another possible cause is invasion by outside peoples, though the position of the only defensive structures in the city (a wooden stockade and watchtowers) in the main ceremonial precinct, away from the heavily populated areas of the city, suggests that the civilian population of the city faced no threat of invasion from outside forces. There is no other evidence for warfare, so the stockade may have been more for ritual or formal separation than for military purposes. In any case, by 1300 this once thriving city was almost entirely abandoned.

*Chert = a type of hard rock usually of biological origin

In paragraph 1, each of the following is mentioned as a feature of the city of Cahokia between A.D 1100 to 1200 EXCEPT:

Several large temples

Many public plazas

Man-made mounds

A manufacturing workshop

2 / 10

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a factor in the development of Cahokia?

Its religious significance to non-residents

The presence of chert close to the city

An exchange of agricultural tools with Mesoamerica

The city’s position along a natural trade route

3 / 10

The word “ingenuity” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:

faith

sincerity

ambition

cleverness

4 / 10

What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about agricultural methods used in Cahokia in 1100?

They were sometimes unable to supply enough food for the city.

They were carried out by newly arrived immigrants.

They were not as advanced as those used in Mesoamerica.

They were seriously affected by environmental pollution.

5 / 10

The phrase “this problem” in paragraph 3 refers to:

An insufficient amount of immigrants

An unhealthy environment

Unattractive social and political attractions

The population of the city

6 / 10

Which of the following “bolstered the population of the city”?

The leadership of influential spiritual elites

Knowledge of complex construction techniques

A highly-visible and attractive religious structure

The selection of a new paramount chief from elsewhere in the Mississippi area

7 / 10

According to paragraph 5, what has recent research on chert tools found at the Silvernail settlement site revealed?

Chert tools were started to be used after Cahokia became an important city.

Agricultural tools were exchanged with people at the Silvernail settlement for copper and seashells.

Some of the tools used by people at the Silvernail settlement were made of materials from the area near Cahokia.

The residents of Cahokia were the only producers of farming tools in the area

8 / 10

In paragraph 6, why does the author mention the location of the city’s defensive structures?

To explain why the city was easily invaded by outside forces.

To present an example of why large cities often decline over time.

To explain why diseases spread so quickly in heavily populated areas.

To suggest that the city was not abandoned due to warfare.

9 / 10

In paragraph 1 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added.

“In fact, artifacts and tools from Cahokia have been discovered in sites as far away as the shores of Lake Superior to the north, and Appalachia to the south.”

The ancient city of Cahokia was located at a site very close to modern St. Louis in the United States. At its apex from A.D. 1100 to 1200, Cahokia covered about 16 square kilometers and probably had a population that peaked at about 15,000, the largest in the surrounding region. A During this period the landscape of the city was dominated by the presence of a large number of public plazas separated by at least 120 man-made mounds, the largest of which was topped by a major temple. B Remains have also been found of an elaborate copper workshop that produced sophisticated metal goods traded with both nearby and distant settlements. Moreover, the city is noted for its significant economic and spiritual contacts with other settlements in the Mississippi area. C Although the inhabitants left no written records beyond symbols on pottery, shells, wood, and stone, the remains of the elaborately planned community reveal a complex society. D

10 / 10

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

The large construction projects and signs of manufacturing and religious facilities that have been uncovered suggests that Cahokia was a complex and influential society.

The reason for the decline of Cahokia is unknown, but it may be connected to environmental factors or military conflict.

Scholars in Cahokia may have used symbols recorded on pottery, shells, stones and other materials to record the city’s history.

It is likely that all of the city’s defensive structures were constructed merely for ceremonial reasons.

Several factors account for the growth of Cahokia, including its location on a trade route, religious significance and access to valuable chert.

As a result of pollution caused by its extremely dense population, Cahokia suffered frequent crop failures.

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TOEFL Reading 6

1 / 10

The Creators of Grammar

No student of a foreign language needs to be told that grammar is complex. By changing word sequences and by adding a range of auxiliary verbs and suffixes, we are able to communicate tiny variations in meaning. We can turn a statement into a question, state whether an action has taken place or is soon to take place, and perform many other word tricks to convey subtle differences in meaning. Nor is this complexity inherent to the English language. All languages, even those of so-called 'primitive' tribes have clever grammatical components. The Cherokee pronoun system, for example, can distinguish between 'you and I', 'several other people and I' and 'you, another person and I'. In English, all these meanings are summed up in the one, crude pronoun 'we'. Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is. So the question which has baffled many linguists is - who created grammar?

At first, it would appear that this question is impossible to answer. To find out how grammar is created, someone needs to be present at the time of a language's creation, documenting its emergence. Many historical linguists are able to trace modern complex languages back to earlier languages, but in order to answer the question of how complex languages are actually formed, the researcher needs to observe how languages are started from scratch. Amazingly, however, this is possible.

Some of the most recent languages evolved due to the Atlantic slave trade. At that time, slaves from a number of different ethnicities were forced to work together under colonizer's rule. Since they had no opportunity to learn each other's languages, they developed a make-shift language called a pidgin. Pidgins are strings of words copied from the language of the landowner. They have little in the way of grammar, and in many cases it is difficult for a listener to deduce when an event happened, and who did what to whom. [A] Speakers need to use circumlocution in order to make their meaning understood. [B] Interestingly, however, all it takes for a pidgin to become a complex language is for a group of children to be exposed to it at the time when they learn their mother tongue. [C] Slave children did not simply copy the strings of words uttered by their elders, they adapted their words to create a new, expressive language. [D] It included standardised word orders and grammatical markers that existed in neither the pidgin language, nor the language of the colonizers. Complex grammar systems which emerge from pidgins are termed creoles, and they are invented by children.

Further evidence of this can be seen in studying sign languages for the deaf. Sign languages are not simply a series of gestures; they utilise the same grammatical machinery that is found in spoken languages. Moreover, there are many different languages used worldwide. The creation of one such language was documented quite recently in Nicaragua. Previously, all deaf people were isolated from each other, but in 1979 a new government introduced schools for the deaf. Although children were taught speech and lip reading in the classroom, in the playgrounds they began to invent their own sign system, using the gestures that they used at home. It was basically a pidgin. Each child used the signs differently, and there was no consistent grammar. However, children who joined the school later, when this inventive sign system was already around, developed a quite different sign language. Although it was based on the signs of the older children, the younger children's language was more fluid and compact, and it utilised a large range of grammatical devices to clarify meaning. What is more, all the children used the signs in the same way. A new creole was born.

Some linguists believe that many of the world's most established languages were creoles at first. The English past tense –ed ending may have evolved from the verb 'do'. 'It ended' may once have been 'It end-did'. Therefore it would appear that even the most widespread languages were partly created by children. Children appear to have innate grammatical machinery in their brains, which springs to life when they are first trying to make sense of the world around them. Their minds can serve to create logical, complex structures, even when there is no grammar present for them to copy.

In paragraph 1, why does the writer include information about the Cherokee language?

To prove that complex grammar structures were invented by the Cherokees.

To show how simple, traditional cultures can have complicated grammar structures

To demonstrate how difficult it is to learn the Cherokee language

To show how English grammar differs from Cherokee grammar

2 / 10

What can be inferred about the slaves' pidgin language?

It was difficult to understand, even among slaves.

It contained complex grammar.

It was created by the land-owners.

It was based on many different languages.

3 / 10

All the following sentences about Nicaraguan sign language are true EXCEPT:

The language has been created since 1979.

The language is based on speech and lip reading.

The language incorporates signs which children used at home.

The language was perfected by younger children.

4 / 10

'From scratch' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:

in simple cultures

from the very beginning

by using written information

by copying something else

5 / 10

'Make-shift' in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:

simple and temporary

extensive and diverse

complicated and expressive

private and personal

6 / 10

Which sentence is closest in meaning to the highlighted sentence?
"Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is".

Languages which contain a lot of grammar are more common that languages that contain a little.

Some languages include a lot of grammar, whereas other languages contain a little.

All languages, whether they are spoken by a few people or a lot of people, contain grammar.

The grammar of all languages is the same, no matter where the languages evolved.

7 / 10

All of the following are features of the new Nicaraguan sign language EXCEPT:

The hand movements were smoother and smaller.

All children used the same gestures to show meaning.

New gestures were created for everyday objects and activities.

The meaning was clearer than the previous sign language.

8 / 10

Which idea is presented in the final paragraph?

English was probably once a creole.

The English past tense system is inaccurate.

Linguists have proven that English was created by children.

Children say English past tenses differently from adults.

9 / 10

Look at the word 'consistent' in paragraph 4. This word could best be replaced by which of the following?

uniform

predictable

imaginable

natural

10 / 10

Which THREE ideas best sum up the main ideas of the passage?

Some children are better at grammar than others

Children are better at learning grammar than adults.

All creole languages were perfected by children.

Children have the mental capacity to create complex languages.

Children do not only learn grammar by copying other people.

Children prefer to invent their own grammar rules than to copy existing rules.

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TOEFL reading 7

1 / 10

1. The Moai Of Easter Island

[1] In the southeastern Pacific Ocean, on the piece of land known as Easter Island (now a
territory of Chile), stand several hundred massive stone monoliths. These carvings, called “moai,”
are recognizable by their oversized heads, with their heavy brows, long noses, elongated ears, and
protruding lips. While they average four meters in height and 12.5 tonnes, the largest is almost 10
meters tall and the heaviest weighs a full 86 tons. The upright sculptures are scattered around
Easter Island, many installed on platforms called “ahu” along the coast, while others are more inland
and several stand near the main volcanic quarry of Rano Raraku. The Rapa Nui people of the island
built a total of 887 of these impressive statues between the 12th and 16th centuries. They were, it is
said, symbols of religious and political authority, embodiments of powerful chiefs or ancestors which
faced inland toward the island’s villages, perhaps watching over their creators, keeping them safe.
[2] While the very creation of such monoliths – most out of volcanic ash with stone hand chisels
– is an impressive feat, what is more remarkable (not to mention mysterious) is how they were
transported to their resting places. In the past, most researchers associated the building and
transportation of the moai with widespread deforestation on the island and eventual collapse of the
Rapa Nui civilization. This hypothesis is based, in part, on the fact that the pollen record suddenly
disappears at the same time as the Rapa Nui people stopped constructing the moai and transporting
them with the help of wooden logs. How exactly would logs facilitate the movement of the statues?
Most proponents of this method believe that the people created “rollers” by arranging parallel logs on
which the prone statues were pulled, or pushed. They would not have required an entire roadway of
logs, since logs from the back could be placed at the front, creating a moving platform of sorts. To
make it easier to roll, and keep in position, the statue would be placed on two logs arranged in a V
shape.
[3] One proponent of this idea of rolling the statues in a prone position is Jo Anne Van Tilburg, of
UCLA. Van Tilburg created sophisticated computer models that took into account available
materials, routes, rock, and manpower, even factoring in how much the workers would have to have
eaten. Her models supported the idea that rolling prone statues was the most efficient method. As
further evidence, Van Tilburg oversaw the movement of a moai replica by the method she had
proposed. They were successful, but evidence that it was possible is not necessarily evidence that it
actually happened.
[4] Van Tilburg was not the only one to have experimented with rolling the statues. In the 1980s,
archaeologist Charles Love experimented with rolling the moai in an upright position, rather than
prone, on two wooden runners. Indeed, a team of just 25 men was able to move the statue a
distance of 150 feet in a mere two minutes. However, the route from the stone quarries where the
statues were built to the coast where they were installed was often uneven, and Love’s experiments
were hampered by the tendency of the statues to tip over. While Love’s ideas were dismissed by
many, the idea of the statutes tipping over along the route was consistent with the many moai found
on their sides or faces beside the island’s ancient roads. And local legend held that the statues
“walked” to their destinations, which would seem to support an upright mode of transportation. In
fact, rolling was not the only possible way of transporting the moai in an upright position.
[5] In the 1980s, Pavel Pavel and Thor Heyerdahl had experimented with swiveling the statues
forward. With one rope tied around the head and another around the base, they were able to move a
five-ton moai with only eight people, and a nine-ton statue with 16. However, they abandoned their
efforts when their technique proved too damaging; as they shuffled the statues forward, the bases
were chipped away. This confounding factor led most to believe that an upright, rope-assisted
walking method was incorrect.
[6] But many now believe that they were, in fact, transported upright. In 2012, Carl Lipo of
California State University Long Beach and Terry Hunt of the University of Hawaii teamed up with
archaeologist Sergio Rapu to refine the upright walking idea. They found that the statues that
appeared to be abandoned in transit had bases with a curved front edge. This meant they would
naturally topple forward and would need to be modified once they reached their destinations. But
that curved edge also meant that they could easily be rocked forward using a small team of people
and three ropes attached to the head. Indeed, their experiments demonstrated the feasibility of this
method, and their theory has gained traction.

Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence?

While the very creation of such monoliths – most out of volcanic ash with stone hand
chisels – is an impressive feat, what is more remarkable (not to mention mysterious) is
how they were transported to their resting places

The transportation of the moai is both remarkable and mysterious, but not as impressive as the actual creation of the statutes.

The moai were carved with stone hand chisels, which is an impressive accomplishment, but it is still unknown whether the people actually transported them.

 The transportation of the moai is remarkable, mysterious, and as impressive as their creation with simple hand tools.

The creation of the moai is amazing, but not as amazing as how they were transported.

2 / 10

In paragraph 2, what does the author say about past theories of how the moai were transported from
quarries to their resting places?

The theories were supported by oral accounts of the use of wood by the Rapa Nui peoples at the time the moai were constructed and transported.

The theories were based on inaccurate estimates of the amount of wood required to transport moai over long distances

 The theories relied on evidence of log roadways that remained long after the Rapa Nui people had disappeared.

The theories claimed that that use of natural resources for transporting moai had devastating effects on the land and society.

3 / 10

The word 'they' in paragraph 2 refers to:

The people.

Rollers.

Proponents.

Statues.

4 / 10

Why does the author mention “sophisticated computer models” developed by Jo Anne Van Tilburg in
paragraph 3?

To show how archaeology can apply modern tools to ancient mysteries

To demonstrate that Van Tilburg’s hypothesis appeared to be supported by evidence

To cast doubt on theories that relied more on experimentation than on effective digital modelling

To emphasize the difficulty of theorizing about the activities of people in the remote past

5 / 10

Examine the four █ in the selection below and indicate at which block the following sentence could
be inserted into the passage:

Her data appeared to demonstrate that an average-sized moai could be moved
approximately 10 kilometers in 4.7 days with a team of 70 people.
One proponent of this idea of rolling the statues in a prone position is Jo Anne Van Tilburg, of UCLA. █
[A] Van Tilburg created sophisticated computer models that took into account available materials, routes,
rock, and manpower, even factoring in how much the workers would have to have eaten. Her models
supported the idea that rolling the statues was the most efficient method. █ [B] As further evidence, Van
Tilburg oversaw the movement of a moai replica by the method she had proposed. █ [C] They were
successful, but evidence that it was possible is not necessarily evidence that it actually happened. █ [D] .

6 / 10

In paragraph 3, what does the author NOT suggest about Jo Anne Van Tilburg’s hypothesis
concerning the method of transporting the moai?

The use of computer modelling provides evidence that rolling statues on logs would have been a very efficient method of transportation.

It provides conclusive evidence that the Rapa Nui people used log-rolling techniques to move the moai.

With all the variables taken into account, there still wasn't enough to provide reasonable justification for the log-rolling method.

It was supported by successful attempts at replicating how the Rapa Nui people may have rolled the statues on logs.

7 / 10

What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the statues found at their eventual resting places?

They showed signs of having been tipped over on their sides at some point in transit.

They did not have curved front edges.

Many were, in fact, created where they were installed rather than at the quarries that were originally assumed to be the place of creation.

The people intended for them to be located elsewhere but were constrained by their transportation methods.

8 / 10

The word 'abandoned' in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to:

Damaged

Altered

Left

Tipped

9 / 10

Which of the following methods of transportation does the author say is supported by the most
compelling evidence?

The rolling of moai in a prone position.

The shuffling of moai with ropes tied to the head and base.

The rolling of moai in an upright position on logs

The rocking of moai with ropes tied to the head

10 / 10

There are several competing theories that attempt to explain how the large moai
statues of Easter Island were transported to various locations on the island.

Jo Anne Van Tilburg experimented with moving moai replicas using a V-shaped log structure.

Experiments with moving the moai using ropes have demonstrated the likelihood that they were transported in an upright position.

The condition of the road, the availability of materials, and the construction of the statues are all important variables in determining how they were transported.

The statues that were located around the island were created in the stone quarries in the interior of the island.

Some statues were not, in fact, transported very far from the quarries where they were constructed.

Many theories suggest the use of logs to roll the statues, which may be connected to the eventual collapse of the civilization

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TOEFL Reading 8

1 / 10

Stone Age Agriculture

[1] While the use of stone tools began 2.5 million years ago, it wasn’t until about 10,000 BCE
that Homo sapiens applied these tools to the deliberate cultivation of plants and animals. The
adoption of sustained agriculture – what anthropologists call the “Neolithic revolution” – signifies an
important turning point in the development of human societies, as it led directly to population growth,
permanent or semi-permanent settlement, as well as technological and social development.

[2] Neolithic agriculture developed at different times in different parts of the world, beginning with
the Levant and Mesopotamia, followed by Northern Africa, Southeast Asia, and Europe. But while
we often call it a “revolution,” it would be a mistake to believe that agriculture was a sudden and
complete development, an all or nothing proposition that societies adopted wholesale at the first
opportunity. Instead, it developed slowly, beginning as a supplement to more traditional hunting and
gathering lifestyles in which people relied on plants and animals gathered or hunted in their natural
environment. Over time, as people learned more about and relied more greatly on domesticated
plants and animals, they settled more permanently and cultivated the land more intensively.

[3] Neolithic farmers collected and planted seeds that they learned would produce palatable
grains, selectively breeding plants that were deemed healthy and delicious, and avoiding those that
were not. Early agriculture was restricted to a limited number of plants, namely Emmer wheat,
Einkorn wheat, and barley. Later, people learned to cultivate pulses, including lentils, peas,
chickpeas, and bitter vetch, as well as the multi-purpose flax plant. Together, these eight plant
species are known as the Neolithic founder crops or primary domesticates.

[4] People’s success in planting, cultivating, and harvesting these plants came about as a result
not only of their increased knowledge of the plants themselves but also of the conditions for growth.
They explored innovative irrigation techniques, which enabled even greater production and,
eventually, food surpluses. Of course, food surpluses are useless unless people have the ability and
facilities to store them , which people did in granaries. And food surpluses, in turn, enabled a host of
other social developments, like occupational specialization (since not everyone had to be involved in
food production), trade, and social stratification.

[5] These advances in agriculture went hand in hand with technological development. People
fashioned stone tools such as hoes for working soil, sickle blades for harvesting the crops, and
grinding stones for processing the grains. More important than such agricultural implements,
however, was the polished stone axe, which allowed the Neolithic farmers to clear forests on a large
scale and open up new lands for cultivation. Along with the adze, the axe also enabled them to work
the trees they felled into wood that was usable for building shelter and other structures.

[6] Besides cultivating plants, these stone age farmers also domesticated animals. At first, it was
sheep, goats, and dogs whose temperament, diet, and mating patterns made them good candidates
for domestication. Later, cows and pigs were added to the mix. Besides meat, these animals
provided people with milk (a renewable source of protein), leather, wool, and fertilizer. Cows became
valued for their labor, as they assisted with plowing and towing, and dogs provided protection (not
only to humans but also to their crops and livestock) as well as companionship.

[7] That agriculture enabled hitherto unknown population growth is undeniable. Food surpluses
and an agricultural lifestyle brought a security and safety that nomadic hunter-gatherers did not
enjoy. And it may be argued that the subsequent advances in all realms of society – not only the
aforementioned technology but also knowledge, art, writing, astronomy – would not have emerged
without a sedentary lifestyle. But the impact of the Neolithic revolution, often heralded as a giant step
forward for humankind, was not all positive.

[8] Sedentary agriculture narrowed the diet of Neolithic peoples: they consumed greater
amounts of starch and plant protein and fewer types of food overall. An increasing number of
researchers are claiming that human nutrition became worse with the Neolithic revolution. In
addition, disease increased, as humans lived in closer contact with each other and with
domesticated animals; sanitation didn’t advance quite as quickly as agricultural methods. It also
turns out that agriculture required significantly more labor than hunting and gathering. The combined
result of these facts was a life expectancy that was most likely shorter than that of the apparently
more primitive hunter-gatherers.

Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence?

But while we often call it a “revolution,” it would be a mistake to believe that agriculture
was a sudden and complete development, an all or nothing proposition that societies
adopted wholesale at the first opportunity.

The word “revolution” is somewhat misleading because agriculture was not adopted all at once.

Although agriculture is called a “revolution,” it turned out to be a mistake for those societies that adopted it quickly and completely

Agriculture was an opportunity for sudden and rapid development, which is why we call it a “revolution.”

Traditional beliefs about the adoption of agriculture have been recently transformed in what is known as a “revolution.”

2 / 10

Examine the four █ in the selection below and indicate at which block the following sentence could
be inserted into the passage:
Early farming came about as people observed and experimented with plant
reproduction.
Neolithic farmers collected and planted seeds that they learned would produce palatable grains,
selectively breeding plants that were deemed healthy and delicious, and avoiding those that were not. █
[A] Early agriculture was restricted to a limited number of plants, namely Emmer wheat, Einkorn wheat,
and barley. █ [B] Later, people learned to cultivate pulses, including lentils, peas, chickpeas, and bitter
vetch, as well as the multi-purpose flax plant. █ [C] Together, these eight plant species are known as the
Neolithic founder crops or primary domesticates. █ [D] .

3 / 10

The word 'them' in paragraph 4 refers to:

People.

Techniques

Facilities

Food surpluses

4 / 10

Which of the following can be inferred from the information in paragraph 4?

Granaries were owned and controlled by the farmers themselves, despite social stratification.

Success in farming was dependent on materials and knowledge obtained from outside one’s own region.

Food surpluses led to considerable conflict both within and between agricultural societies.

Pre-agricultural societies tended to have less division of labor than farming peoples.

5 / 10

According to the author, which of the following was most critical in the development of intensive
agriculture?

The sickle

The hoe

The adze

The axe

6 / 10

According to paragraph 6, which of the following is true about domesticated animals?

Their domestication predates the domestication of plant species.

They served a variety of purposes for Neolithic farmers.

They were limited to animals which could produce milk, leather, wool, or fertilizer.

They consumed much of the food surpluses generated through the cultivation of plants.

7 / 10

The primary purpose of paragraph 7 is to

Summarize previously mentioned benefits of the Neolithic revolution.

Outline the necessary preconditions for the development of agriculture.

Introduce the negative impacts of the advent of agriculture

Provide examples of other important developments that rivalled the Neolithic revolution in importance.

8 / 10

The word 'heralded' in paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to:

Dismissed.

Celebrated.

Defined.

Criticized.

9 / 10

All of the following are mentioned as negative impacts of the Neolithic revolution EXCEPT that

There was more competition in society for certain types of resources.

People lacked diversity in the foods they ate.

People suffered from more illness as a result of poor sanitation.

Farming required harder work than previous modes of food production.

10 / 10

In the Neolithic period of the stone age, agriculture was an important
development for human societies.

Besides agricultural tools, people devised implements that helped them build a variety of structures

People learned to cultivate a number of different plants, using innovative tools and techniques.

The food surpluses that agriculture enabled other developments but had an overall negative impact on human health.

Neolithic farmers domesticated a variety of animals, which provided additional food sources as well as labor and protection.

Agriculture appeared in different parts of the world at different times, beginning with the Levant and finally in Europe.

Not all hunter-gatherer groups in the Neolithic period adopted an agricultural lifestyle, as some peoples found it advantageous to maintain their traditional ways

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TOEFL reading 9

1 / 9

In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I of England died. She had never married and had no heir, so the
throne passed to a distant relative: James Stuart, the son of Elizabeth’s cousin and one-time
rival for the throne, Mary, Queen of Scots. James was crowned King James I of England. At the
time, he was also King James VI of Scotland, and the combination of roles would create a spirit
of conflict that haunted the two nations for generations to come.

The conflict developed as a result of rising tensions among the people within the nations, as
well as between them. Scholars in the 21st century are far too hasty in dismissing the role of
religion in political disputes, but religion undoubtedly played a role in the problems that faced
England and Scotland. By the time of James Stuart’s succession to the English throne, the
English people had firmly embraced the teachings of Protestant theology. Similarly, the Scottish
Lowlands was decisively Protestant. In the Scottish Highlands, however, the clans retained their
Catholic faith. James acknowledged the Church of England and still sanctioned the largely
Protestant translation of the Bible that still bears his name.

James’s son King Charles I proved himself to be less committed to the Protestant Church of
England. Charles married the Catholic Princess Henrietta Maria of France, and there were
suspicions among the English and the Lowland Scots that Charles was quietly a Catholic.
Charles’s own political troubles extended beyond religion in this case, and he was beheaded in
1649. Eventually, his son King Charles II would be crowned, and this Charles is believed to have
converted secretly to the Catholic Church. Charles II died without a legitimate heir, and his
brother James ascended to the throne as King James II.

James was recognized to be a practicing Catholic, and his commitment to Catholicism would
prove to be his downfall. James’s wife Mary Beatrice lost a number of children during their
infancy, and when she became pregnant again in 1687 the public became concerned. If James
had a son, that son would undoubtedly be raised a Catholic, and the English people would not
stand for this. Mary gave birth to a son, but the story quickly circulated that the royal child had
died and the child named James’s heir was a foundling smuggled in. James, his wife, and his
infant son were forced to flee; and James’s Protestant daughter Mary was crowned the queen.

In spite of a strong resemblance to the king, the young James was generally rejected among the
English and the Lowland Scots, who referred to him as “the Pretender.” But in the Highlands the
Catholic princeling was welcomed. He inspired a group known as Jacobites, to reflect the Latin
version of his name. His own son Charles, known affectionately as Bonnie Prince Charlie, would
eventually raise an army and attempt to recapture what he believed to be his throne. The
movement was soundly defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, and England and Scotland
have remained Protestant ever since.

Which of the following sentences contains an opinion on the part of the author?

James’ son King Charles I proved himself to be less committed to the Protestant Church of England.

James was recognized to be a practicing Catholic, and his commitment to Catholicism would prove to be his downfall.

The movement was soundly defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, and England and Scotland have remained ostensibly Protestant ever since.

Scholars in the 21st century are far too hasty in dismissing the role of religion in political disputes, but religion undoubtedly played a role in the problems that faced England and Scotland.

2 / 9

Which of the following is a logical conclusion based on the information that is
provided within the passage?

. Like Elizabeth I, Charles II never married and thus never had children

The English people were relieved each time that James II’s wife Mary lost another child, as this prevented the chance of a Catholic monarch.

Unlike his son and grandsons, King James I had no Catholic leanings and was a faithful follower of the Protestant Church of England.

Charles I’s beheading had less to do with religion than with other political problems that England was facing.

3 / 9

Based on the information that is provided within the passage, which of the following
can be inferred about King James II’s son?

Considering his resemblance to King James II, the young James was very likely the legitimate child of the king and the queen.

James was unable to acquire the resources needed to build the army and plan the invasion that his son succeeded in doing.

Given the queen’s previous inability to produce a healthy child, the English and the Lowland Scots were right in suspecting the legitimacy of the prince

James “the Pretender” was not as popular among the Highland clans as his son Bonnie Prince Charlie

4 / 9

What can be inferred from paragraph two about the author’s view of 21st century
scholars?

21st century scholars lack the details necessary to understand historical political disputes.

21st century scholars often disregard the role of religious views in historical political disputes.

21st century scholars think that religion is never used in political disputes.

21st century scholars make hasty observations about historical political disputes.

5 / 9

What is the nickname of the founder of a group called the Jacobites?

The Fool

Jacob

The Deceiver

The Pretender

6 / 9

Who does the passage say ascended the throne because someone else did not have
a legitimate heir?

King James Stuart

King Charles II

King James II

Queen Elizabeth I

7 / 9

Which of the following best describes what the passage is about?

The history and origin of the Jacobites

The lineage of the current Queen of England

The history of religions in Scotland and in England

The role of religion had in conflict between England and Scotland

8 / 9

What was the result of King Charles I’s political troubles?

He was hanged

He was exiled

He was beheaded

He was dethroned

9 / 9

What was the end result of the conflict after the Battle of Culloden?

This battle started conflict that would continue for generations

England and Scotland became Catholic as a result of the battle

England and Scotland have remained Protestant

James the Pretender and his wife had to flee for safety

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